Labor Migration – Social Inequality and Disruption of Family Relationships: The Chinese Experience
Akhmedova Sh.D.1
1 Национальный университет Узбекистана им. Мирзо Улугбека
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Статья в журнале
Экономика Центральной Азии (РИНЦ, ВАК)
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Том 9, Номер 3 (Июль-сентябрь 2025)
Эта статья проиндексирована РИНЦ, см. https://elibrary.ru/item.asp?id=83104441
Аннотация:
This article explores the significant increase in domestic labor migration in the People’s Republic of China due to the implementation of the “Hukou” system, examining its effects on families left behind. The family is a social institution profoundly impacted by migration, as the departure of one family member often disrupts intra-family relationships. It is crucial to consider both positive and negative effects on the remaining family members when one or more family members migrate. When parents migrate, children may experience emotional dissatisfaction, lack of supervision, and inadequate physical and psychological care, which can lead to developmental delays and susceptibility to harmful habits. Women, on the other hand, are often burdened with additional responsibilities in the absence of their husbands. Physical, mental pressures, and financial difficulties further complicate women's lifestyles. Such imbalances in family-marital relations negatively affect the stability of families. Therefore, rather than implementing restrictive state systems, it is essential to promote government and non-government projects that support these socially vulnerable families, helping them overcome crises. This experience experienced by the people's Republic of China also plays an important role in the economy and politics of the countries involved in migration. We believe that it is necessary to draw conclusions from this experience and take into account the implementation of reforms in public administration, especially since the countries of Central Asia are a migrant sending area in a large stream.
Ключевые слова: Hukou system, labor migration, left-behind women, left-behind children, parental migration, social inequality, Chinese society, Rural Hukou, Urban Hukou
JEL-классификация: O15, O10, D63
Тезисы (Highlights):
Источники:
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Трудовая миграция — социальное неравенство и разрушение семейных отношений: Опыт Китая
Akhmedova Sh.D.Journal paper
Journal of Central Asia Economy (РИНЦ, ВАК)
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Volume 9, Number 3 (July-september 2025)
Abstract:
В этой статье рассматривается значительное увеличение внутренней трудовой миграции в Китайской Народной Республике в связи с введением системы «Хукоу» и ее влияние на семьи, оставшиеся без кормильцев. Семья — это социальный институт, на который миграция оказывает глубокое влияние, поскольку отъезд одного из членов семьи часто нарушает внутрисемейные отношения. Крайне важно учитывать как положительные, так и отрицательные последствия для оставшихся членов семьи, когда один или несколько членов семьи уезжают. Когда родители уезжают, дети могут испытывать эмоциональное напряжение, недостаток внимания и заботы, что может привести к задержке развития и формированию вредных привычек. С другой стороны, на женщин часто ложится дополнительная ответственность в отсутствие мужей. Физическое и психологическое напряжение, а также финансовые трудности ещё больше усложняют жизнь женщин. Такой дисбаланс в семейных отношениях негативно сказывается на стабильности семей. Поэтому вместо внедрения ограничительных государственных систем важно продвигать правительственные и неправительственные проекты, которые поддерживают эти социально уязвимые семьи, помогая им преодолевать кризисные ситуации. Этот опыт, накопленный Китайской Народной Республикой, также играет важную роль в экономике и политике стран, вовлечённых в миграционные процессы. Мы считаем, что необходимо сделать выводы из этого опыта и принять во внимание проведение реформ в сфере государственного управления, особенно с учётом того, что страны Центральной Азии являются крупным регионом, откуда массово уезжают мигранты.
Keywords: система хукоу, трудовая миграция, брошенные женщины, брошенные дети, миграция родителей, социальное неравенство, китайское общество, сельский хукоу, городской хукоу
JEL-classification: O15, O10, D63
Highlights:
References:
Adhikari J., Rai M. K., Baral C., Subedi M. Labour Migration from Nepal: Trends and ExplanationsIMISCOE Research Series. Retrieved from https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-031-34194-6_5
Alegría M., Álvarez K., DiMarzio K. (2017). Immigration and mental health Current Epidemiology Reports. 4 (2). 145-155. doi: 10.1007/s40471-017-0111-2.
Aslany M., Carling J., Mjelva M. B., Sommerfelt T. (2021). Systematic review of determinants of migration aspirations Changes. (1(18)). 21-26.
Bai Y., Zhang L., Liu C., Shi Y., Mo D., Rozelle S. (2017). Vliyanie migratsii roditeley na akademicheskuyu uspevaemost ostavlennyh detey v severo-zapadnom Kitae. The Journal of Development Studies. 54 (7). 1154-1170. doi: 10.1080/00220388.2017.1333108.
Bella G., Mattana P., Venturi B. (2024). Stabilization of chaotic dynamics emerging in an economy with international labor migration Social Sciences & Humanities Open. 10 101067. doi: 10.1016/j.ssaho.2024.101067.
Carroll H.A., Kvietok A., Pauschardt Ju., Freier L.F., Bird M. (2022). Prevalence of common mental health disorders in forcibly displaced populations versus labor migrants by migration phase: A meta-analysis Journal of Affective Disorders. 321 279-289. doi: 10.1016/j.jad.2022.10.010.
Chen J., Wang W. (2018). Ekonomicheskie stimuly i namereniya po osedlosti selskikh migrantov: dannye iz Kitaya. Journal of Urban Affairs. 41 (3). 372-389. doi: 10.1080/07352166.2018.1439339.
Chen M., Sun X. (2015). Future Orientation and School Bonding among Left-Behind Children in Mainland China Cambridge: Cambridge Scholars Publishing.
Chen Sh., Ravallion M. (2021). Reconciling the conflicting narratives on poverty in China Journal of Development Economics. 153 102711. doi: 10.1016/j.jdeveco.2021.102711.
Cheng Z., Nielsen I.L., Smyth R.L. (2015). Determinants of wage arrears and implications for the socio-economic wellbeing of China’s migrant workers: evidence from Guangdong province Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar Publishing.
Chetty R., Grusky D., Hell M., Hendren N., Manduca R., Narang J. (2017). Ischezayuschaya amerikanskaya mechta: tendentsii absolyutnoy dokhodnoy mobilnosti s 1940 goda. Science. 356 (6336). 398-406. doi: 10.1126/science.aal4617.
Cruceru A.-A. (2010). The statistical analysis of the Romanian migration phenomenon Rumynskiy statisticheskiy zhurnal. (11). 213.
Das P. (2020). Consequences of nepalese youth migration to overseas for foreign employment Jurnal Sosiologi Nusantara. 6 (1). 23-30. doi: 10.33369/jsn.6.1.23-30.
De Haas H. (2011). Mediterranean migration futures: Patterns, drivers and scenarios Global Environmental Change. 21 (1). S59–S69. doi: 10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2011.09.003.
Du H., Song J., Li Si.M. (2021). ‘Peasants are peasants’: Prejudice against displaced villagers in newly-built urban neighbourhoods in China Urban Studies. 58 (8). 1598-1614. doi: 10.1177/0042098020911876.
Feng D., Zhu H., Wang Y. (2021). Agency and mobility in the context of development-induced migration: the case of Three Gorges out-migrants Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies. 47 (12). 2745-2759. doi: 10.1080/1369183X.2020.1739375.
Feng L., He Yu., Zhan P. (2023). Economic independence and living arrangements of older women with agricultural Hukou in China China Economic Review. 81 102045. doi: 10.1016/j.chieco.2023.102045.
Gao S., Xue J. (2015). Future Orientation and School Bonding among Left-Behind Children in Mainland China Cambridge: Cambridge Scholars Publishing.
Gustafsson B., Sai D. (2023). China’s urban poor – Comparing twice poverty between residents and migrants in 2013 and 2018 China Economic Review. 80 102012. doi: 10.1016/j.chieco.2023.102012.
Jiang Y., Waley P., Gonzalez S. (2018). ‘Nice apartments, no jobs’: How former villagers experienced displacement and resettlement in the western suburbs of Shanghai Urban Studies. 55 (14). 3202-3217. doi: 10.1177/0042098017740246.
Jingzhong Y., Lu P. (2011). Differentsirovannoe detstvo: vliyanie selskoy trudovoy migratsii na ostavshikhsya detey v Kitae. Journal of Peasant Studies. 38 (2). 355-377. doi: 10.1080/03066150.2011.559012.
Kroeber A.R. (2016). China’s economy: What Everyone Needs to Know Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Kuang L., Liu L. (2012). Discrimination against Rural-to-Urban Migrants: The Role of the Hukou System in China PLoS ONE. 7 (11). e46932. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0046932.
Kuhnt J. Literature review: drivers of migration. Why do people leave their homes? Is there an easy answer? A structured overview of migratory determinantsRePEc: Research Papers in Economics. Retrieved from https://www.idos-research.de/discussion-paper/article/literature-review-drivers-of-migration-why-do-people-leave-their-homes-is-there-an-easy-answer-a-structured-overview-of-migratory-determinants/
Kulla G., Appoh L., Sarvimäki A. (2024). The integration experiences of older finnish re-migrants: ‘embraced by the swedes … but finland is my home country’ Social Sciences & Humanities Open. 9 100905. doi: 10.1016/j.ssaho.2024.100905.
Lei L. (2023). The Patriarchal Trap: The village wives left behind amid Chinese Rural–Urban migration SAGE Open. 13 (1). 215824402211442. doi: 10.1177/21582440221144245.
Lei X., Strauss J., Tian M., Zhao Y. (2015). Living arrangements of the elderly in China: evidence from the CHARLS national baseline China Economic Journal. 8 (3). 191-205. doi: 10.1080/17538963.2015.1102473.
Li C. (2013). China´s Internal and International Migration London: Routledge.
Li M., Pu Y., Xu B., Wu Sh. (2016). Kak identichnosti etnicheskikh i ostavlennyh detey vliyayut na ikh depressiyu: dannye iz etnicheskikh rayonov provintsii Sychuan, Kitay. Heliyon. 9 (9). e20169. doi: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2023.e20169.
Liu S. (2023). Neighbourhoods in shaping migrant integration: A study of peri-urban Beijing Transactions in Planning and Urban Research. 2 (4). 394-415. doi: 10.1177/27541223231212483.
Löbel L. (2019). Family separation and refugee mental health–A network perspective Social Networks. 61 20-33. doi: 10.1016/j.socnet.2019.08.004.
Maharjan A., Bauer S., Knerr B. (2012). Poluchayut li vygodu selskie zhenschiny, ostavshiesya doma, ot muzhskoy trudovoy migratsii? Issledovanie v gornyh rayonakh Nepala. Gender, Technology and Development. 16 (1). 95-123. doi: 10.1177/097185241101600105.
Maurer-Fazio M., Connelly R., Ngoc-Han T.T. Do negative Native-Place stereotypes lead to discriminatory wage penalties in China’s migrant labor markets?Hand. Retrieved from https://hdl.handle.net/10419/108724
National Bureau of Statistics of China. Nationwide Total Number and Monthly Income of Rural Migrant WorkersData.stats.gov.cn. Retrieved from https://data.stats.gov.cn/english/easyquery.htm?cn=C01
Nikoloski Z., Zhang A., Hopkin G., Mossialos E. (2019). Self-reported Symptoms of Depression Among Chinese Rural-to-Urban Migrants and Left-Behind Family Members JAMA Network Open. 2 (5). e193355. doi: 10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2019.3355.
Paskov M., Präg P., Richards L. (2020). Does downward social mobility make people more hostile towards immigrants? Research in Social Stratification and Mobility. 72 100543. doi: 10.1016/j.rssm.2020.100543.
Ren Q., Treiman D.J. (2016). The consequences of parental labor migration in China for children’s emotional wellbeing Social Science Research. 58 46-67. doi: 10.1016/j.ssresearch.2016.03.003.
Shrestha S., Joshi N.P. (2024). Impact of monetary and non-monetary benefits and costs information on youth’s preference for labor emigration in Nepal: A vignette experiment Social Sciences & Humanities Open. 10 101091. doi: 10.1016/j.ssaho.2024.101091.
Sun X., Chen M. (2015). Inequality in Educational Opportunities of Migrant Children in China Cambridge: Cambridge Scholars Publishing.
Wahab A. (2020). The outbreak of covid-19 in malaysia: pushing migrant workers at the margin Social Sciences & Humanities Open. 2 (1). 100073. doi: 10.1016/j.ssaho.2020.100073.
Wang Z. (2020). Beyond displacement – exploring the variegated social impacts of urban redevelopment Urban Geography. 41 (5). 703-712. doi: 10.1080/02723638.2020.1734373.
Wang Z., Zhang F., Wu F. (2016). Intergroup neighbouring in urban China: Implications for the social integration of migrants Urban Studies. 53 (4). 651-668. doi: 10.1177/0042098014568068.
Wang Z., Zhang F., Wu F. (2020). The contribution of intergroup neighbouring to community participation: Evidence from Shanghai Urban Studies. 57 (6). 1224-1242. doi: 10.1177/0042098019830899.
Weine S., Muzurovic N., Kulauzovic Y., Besic S., Lezic A., Mujagic A., Muzurovic J., Spahovic D., Feetham S., Ware N., Knafl K., Pavkovic I. (2004). Family consequences of refugee trauma Family Process. 43 (2). 147-160. doi: 10.1111/j.1545-5300.2004.04302002.x.
Wellman B., Wortley S. (1990). Different strokes from different folks: community ties and social support American Journal of Sociology. 96 (3). 558-588. doi: 10.1086/229572.
World Migration Report 2024International Organization for Migration. Retrieved from https://worldmigrationreport.iom.int/msite/wmr-2024-interactive
Wu F., Logan J. (2016). Do rural migrants ‘float’ in urban China? Neighbouring and neighbourhood sentiment in Beijing Urban Studies. 53 (14). 2973-2990. doi: 10.1177/0042098015598745.
Wu W., Wang G. (2014). Together but Unequal: Citizenship Rights for Migrants and Locals in Urban China Urban Affairs Review. 50 (6). 781-805. doi: 10.1177/1078087413518172.
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